Many of these symptoms can be mistaken for other diseases.  Leptospirosis is confirmed by laboratory testing of a blood or urine sample. Outbreaks of Leptospirosis are usually caused by exposure to water contaminated with the urine of infected animals.  Many different kinds of animals carry the bacterium; they become sick but sometimes have no symptoms.  Leptospira organisms have been found in cattle, pigs, horses, dogs, rodents, and wild animals.  Humans become in contact with water, food, or soil containing urine from these infected animals.  This may happen by swallowing contaminated food or water or through skin contact, especially with mucosal surfaces, such as the eyes or nose, or with broken skin.

Leptospirosis is treated with antibiotics, such as doxycycline or penicillin, which should be given early in the course of the disease.  Intravenous antibiotics may be required for persons with more severe health care problems. 

However, inappropriate urination is most often a behavioral problem.  One of the most common reasons that cats stop using the litter box is that the box is not kept clean enough for their tastes.  Boxes need to be scooped at least daily, and the litter should be changed frequently.  Many cats are best accommodated with two seperate boxes: one for urination and one for defecation.  Both boxes must be kept clean.  If you have multiple cats, many veterinarians recommend that you provide at least one litter box per cat.  You may want to provide litter box access on each floor of the house.

Also consider whether your cat has access to the litter box.  Is there a closed door blocking your cat's path to the litter box?  In addition, a dog that stands guard or a dominant cat may not permit the affected cat to use the box.  Other causes of aversion to the litter box include proximity to appliances that are noisy, such as televisions and washing machines, and those that turn on or off by use of a timer.  Cats that are disturbed in the litter box by another cat, child, or dog may develop a litter box aversion as well.

It is possible that your cat is reacting to a change in the box location or type of litter.  Some cats are very particular about where they go, and others are sensitive to the perfumes or dust in the litter.  It may be necessary to try different types of litter -- for example, a non-clumping clay litter versus a sand-like clumping one -- until you find one that meets your pet's needs.  In addition, if you provide the cat with a covered litter box, you might try switching to an uncovered box to see if the pet prefers it.

There are other methods for controlling inappropriate urination.  You may want to move the litter box to the area where your cat is urinating.  Always clean the soiled areas of your home with a non-ammonia cleaner.  Because cats are drawn to the scent of urine, they may continue to go in the same inappropriate site if they are stimulated by the smell of previous accidents.  The best cleaning products contain enzymes that degrade the urine and prevent stains.  These products should be available through your veterinarian or local pet store.  Because your cat may have a preference for carpet, you can change the way the area feels by using plastic carpet protectors or aluminum foil  This substrate change may make the litter box a preferred spot.  In some cases, you may want to move your cat's food bowl to the area that she had previously soiled.  Because cats are fastidious they don't like to eat and eliminate in the same place.

It is important to talk to your veterinarian about the inappropriate urination.  He or she will have some additional suggestions tailored to the specific needs of your cat.  In some cases, medication can be helpful in controlling the problem, but it is usually reserved for cases where other possibilities have been exhausted.  Veterinary behavioral specialists may offer additional insights.

Bad breath in dogs may be due to dental disorders such as periodontal disease, gingivitis, and plaque buildup on the teeth, significant oral cavity disease such as abscesses, sores or ulcers, decaying tissue associated with cancer, and infections.  Kidney and other organ system disease and diabetes and other metabolic problems may also cause halitosis.

Although some tartar control treats and brushing are helpful, if your dog's foul odor is due to plaque buildup, a professional dental cleaning will be necessary.  More extensive dental problems may require specialized veterinary dental care.  If other problems exist, such as infection, abcess, tumors, or metabolic or other systemic diseases, they will require veterinary attention.

OVARIOHYSTERECTOMY (OVH or Spay)
Ovariohysterectomy is the medical term for spaying a female dog or cat.  The procedure consists of surgical removal of the ovaries and uterus.  If the ovaries are not removed, heat periods still occur even though pregnancy is impossible.  Surgery is usually performed at 4-6 months of age.
Though it is routinely performed, ovariohysterectomy is a major abdominal surgery, requiring general anesthesia and sterile operating technique. 
Prevention of pregnancy and heat periods are the main reasons for the surgery, but the procedure is often necessary to treating severe uterine infection, ovarian and/or uterine tumors, and some skin disorders.

CASTRATION (or Neuter)
Castration is the medical term for neutering a male dog or cat.  The procedure consists of surgical removal of the testicles.  Such surgery is performed to eliminate sexual activities and render the dog sterile.  Castration usuallly (but not always) reduces a dog's tendancy to roam and fight.  The general level of aggression may also be reduced.  However, castration is not a replacement for obedience training by the owner.
Castration at a young age significantly reduces the risks of prostatic diseases and certain types of cancer.  In older dogs, castration may be necessary due to disease of the testicles or prostrate gland.  When a cat is castrated just before sexual maturity at 4-6 months of age, the cat's sexual instincts are reduced, and the cat becomes sterile.  Fighting and night-prowling, common in intact male cats, are largely eliminated.  (However, castrated cats may still want to go outdoors to hunt.)  The objectionable urine odor of the male cat is also reduced.

Dips are not safe when used often enough to be effective.  Flea collars are not generally useful, and sprays must be applied regularly to have maximum kill.  The yard products, such as organophosphates, should help eliminate environmental fleas.  You may wish to treat the shady areas of the yard, under bushes and trees, where ultraviolet light does not penetrate, especially if the pets lie there.  All areas that your pet visits must be treated, even your house, car, and garage.  The entire environment and the pets must be treated concurrently; the clean, flea-free animals must be housed in a flea-free area while the premises are treated.  After vacuuming the area rugs, be sure to throw the vacuum bag away.

Despite the apparent expense of the new topical products such as Frontline or Revolution, these products have proved themselves highly effective in such situations.  They should be safe for all members of the household.  Please discuss their utility with your veterinarian.  He will assess your situation and customize a flea-control plan for you as economically as possible.

An appointment should be made to have your veterinarian examine your dog to determine the underlying cause for the licking and to offer treatment options.  Your veterinarian may perform some tests, including bloodwork and possibly radiographs (x-rays) to help diagnose the underlying condition.

It may be that your dog is itchy because of allergies.  Allergens are substances that cause an allergic reaction in affected animals while it is possible that your pet is simply being fastidious when he comes in the house, the more likely explanation is that he is being exposed to allergens on his trips outside.  Dogs, like people, may be affected by pollen and other airborne allergens.  Unlike people, inhalant allergy symptoms in dogs more commonly include itching, hair loss, ear infections, dermatitis (skin inflammation or irritation) and other skin problems.

Inhalant allergies, or atopy, can sometimes be managed simply by reducing the exposure to the allergens and with the use of antihistamines or other allergy medication and medicated shampoos.  In severe cases, it may be better to have your pet tested for specific allergies and treated, if necessary, with allergy shots, which are essentially vaccinations against the allergens.  This approach can greatly reduce the need for anti-inflammatory medications that may produce unwanted side effects.  Veterinary dermatologists are specially trained to conduct allergy testing to formulate on appropriate allergy serum.

Hypersensitivity or adverse reaction to food components is a possible cause of itchy feet and extremities that results in licking and chewing.  Patients develop allergies to inhaled or ingested allergens over time, usually after months or years of continuous exposure.  While atopy is often a seasonal problem, adverse reactions to food are usually year-round.

You need to consult with your veterinarian.  After giving your dog a physical examination, the doctor may decide that testing for the various causes of dermatitis is warranted.  Some of the tests that your doctor may choose to do include scraping the skin to determine if mites (such as scabies) are present; plucking hairs and examining them under a microscope to search for evidence of fungal infection; cytologic examination of crust or exudate to look for any yeast overgrowth; and fungal cultures of the hairs to look for dermatophytosis (ring worm).  Your veterinarian may find it necessary to perform a skin biopsy.  He or she may also conduct some blood tests and urinalysis to determine thyroid disease or other systemic disorders are present.

The doctor may put your dog on a strict food trial for 10-13 weeks using a completely hypoallergenic diet with ingredients that your dog has never eaten before.  This food trial helps determine if your dog has a food allergy or not.

These tests will help narrow the field of possible causes and allow your dog to be treated appropriately.  Treatments include, but are not limited to, antibiotics, antifungals, shampoos and dips, dietary supplements and other oral medications, and allergy shots.

If your dog has fleas, he may be allergic to fleabites.  The saliva of the flea is what causes the allergic skin condition.  Fleabite allergy is very common and typically causes hair loss and scabbing on the back, abdomen and rear legs.  You may want to talk to your veterinarian about putting your pet on a topical flea preventive that helps eliminate fleas and thus fleabites.

Weight loss occurs when the body's metabolic requirements, measured in calories, exceed the usable calories derived from food.  When an animal needs to lose weight, reducing the amount or changing the type of food eaten -- so that the number of calories consumed is less than the body needs -- will result in weight loss.  Such weight-reduction diets are designed to reduce stored body fat only and not other tissues, especially muscle.  This is controlled weight loss and is supervised by a clinician.

There are many diseases associated with uncontrolled or unintended weight loss.  In some of these diseases starvation actually occurs even if the affected animal is eating normally or excessively.  As fat stores are depleted, muscle begins to breakdown to provide protein for energy production and restorative processes. 

Additionally, muscle also breaks down when the body's protein requirements are not being met through the diet or digestive processes.  In such situations, a negative nitrogen balance is said to exist, which is a sign of starvation and a very serious underlying disease.

Several physiologic mechanisms exist that produce disease-associated weight loss.  Some feline diseases significantly increase energy (calorie) requirements.  Without a compensatory increase in food, the affected cat loses weight.  Metabolic, malignant (cancerous) and infectious diseases fit this category.  Common examples include diabetes mellitus, kidney disease or failure, and hyperthyroidism; lymphoma and other cancers; feline immunodeficiency virus or feline leukemia virus and other infectious diseases.  Sustained exposure to a cold environment can also raise energy needs as the body shivers to produce heat.  These processes can lead to weight loss in spite of a normal, or even, increased appetite.

Diets with insufficient calories or poor nutrient quality relative to the cat's normal metabolic requirements will cause weight loss.  Consulting with a veterinarian about proper diet and amounts to be fed and then following the doctor's instructions will eliminate this cause of unintended weight loss in healthy cats.

Insufficient food intake, where the affected cat refuses to eat or cannot eat, has many causes.  Anorexia (loss of appetite), dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), regurgitation, nausea and vomitting may limit food intake and nutrient availability.  Many diseases of cats produce theses nonspecific signs.  Cats won't eat if they cannot smell their food; so problems affecting the sense of smell, including respiratory diseases, infections, and allergies, among others may be associated with weight loss.  Dental problems that make chewing difficult may also prevent normal food intake.  Food with low "taste appeal", especially to finicky cats, will contribute to weight loss as well.

Disorders where consumed food is not properly absorbed into the body or is not converted into energy will also cause the affected animal to lose weight.  Intestinal parasites, inflammatory disorders of the intestines, and tumors can block the normal absorption of nutrients and fluids from the stomach and intestines.  Pancreatic and liver diseases can disrupt production and secretion of enzymes and other substances needed to process nutrients.

Gastrointestinal ailments in which nutrients are eliminated from the body before they can be absorbed and converted into energy can result in profound weight loss.  Severe persistent vomitting and diarrhea associated with various diseases can result in loss of nutrients necessary for energy production.  Liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal diseases may result in loss of protein.  Glucose is lost through urinary excretion in diabetes mellitus; protein is lost with certain diseases of the kidney's glomerular apparatus.

When a cat or other animal with a history of unexplained weight loss is presented to a veterinarian, the doctor will take a history and perform a physical examination in order to develop a list of possible underlying diseases.  Then appropriate laboratory tests and other studies will be undertaken to narrow the field of possible causes. 

Tests typically include complete blood count, blood chemistry, and urinalysis.  Tests for intestinal and other parasites, as well as for bacterial, viral, and fungal diseases may be needed.  Radiographs (x-rays) and ultrasound scans may be helpful in evaluating the status of the heart, liver, and other organs and may help reveal the presence of abnormal growths.  In some cases biopsy or fine-needle-aspirate tissue sampling techniques may be needed to obtain tissue samples for microscopic evaluation.  Endoscopy might be needed to visualize and sample various parts of the gastrointestinal tract.

Treatment is directed at the underlying cause of the weight loss.  If recovery follows, restoration of weight is possible and likely.  Debilitated animals may need supportive treatment to restore fluid loss, force feeding, or hyperalimentation therapy, where nutrients are given intravenously, to help maintain positive nitrogen balance.

Your dog should be checked for tapeworms and other intestinal parasites, as these may also cause dogs to scoot.  Tapeworms commonly appear as "white rice" segments around the dog's anus or in the stool.  If you have seen this, tell your veterinarian. 

Other potential causes of scooting can include sensitivity to diet, flea allergy, or skin infection.

Certain types of chocolate contain higher amounts of methylxanthines, baking chocolate containing the highest and white chocolate containing the least.  Dogs freely ingest toxic amounts of chocolate if it is left accessible.  A potentially lethal dose in a 16 pound dog is only one pound of milk chocolate.  People stop eating chocolate before ingesting toxic levels.

Cardiac failure, seizures, coma, and death can result if the chocolate ingestion is not found within four to six hours and treated appropriately.  The length of action of the methylxanthines is usually 12-36 hours.  In dogs that chocolate ingestion is detected early, the prognosis is good.

If your dog has gotten into chocolate, you should note the type, estimate the amount eaten, and then call your veterinarian for recommendations.  You will probably need to take your dog in for examination and evaluation of heart rate.  If your veterinarian is not available, you should seek emergency care.  We recommend that you keep your chocolate in an unreachable location; an ounce of prevention is better than an ounce of ingestion.

Most cats can be trained to use a scratching post instead of the alternatives.  This is done by first purchasing a scratching post that has a wide base, is secure, at least two to three feet tall, and has a rough surface on it that is attractive to the cat - such as burlap or wound rope.  It must have these features because the cat has to be able to stand up and pull down on the post to scratch and stretch, yet not pull it over.  These posts can be made or purchased from many different stores.

Training begins with placing the scratching post where the cat sleeps or somewhere that it enjoys hanging out.  Then, carry your cat to the scratching post, gently take its front feet, and rub them up and down on the post.  If the cat struggles or is scared, don't restrain it or continue to frighten it - remember this must be fun!  The key is repetition, and gradually your cat will learn that the scratching post is an approved surface to destroy at any time.

It is also important that you realize cats can be trained, and you must teach the cat that scratching the curtains, couch, your new pants, or any place besides the scratching post is unacceptable.  This may involve using a squirt gun, loud noise, or something else that alerts the cat while it's scratching off-limit places.  Never strike or hit the cat as this will cause more harm than good.  Be patient and don't give up.  Repetition is important!

If you have tried unsuccessfully to train your cat and are considering giving it up, declawing is another option.  This is only to be done on cats that are strictly indoors.  Only the front feet should be declawed.  The back feet are usually not a problem and are left alone so that if the cat were ever to get outside, it could still climb up a tree or partly defend itself.

Owners should be aware that several prominent animal welfare organizations are opposed to declawing cats.  For example, the Humane Society will not adopt out a cat if an owner plans to declaw it.

Declawing is best done at the time of spaying or neutering - approximately five to six months of age.  This procedure can be done very humanely with the use of pain medications.  Pain management has the best results if it is started approximately 15 to 20 minutes before the surgery and continued for the next 24 to 48 hours.  There are many different pain medications that can be used safely by veterinarians in cats, and they are relatively inexpensive and very effective.  They ensure a pain-free experience and allow the cat to rest comfortably for the next 24 to 48 hours.  This also helps the cat to not associate the veterinarian with a negative experience.

Causes of reverse sneezing include allergies, viral infections, excessive soft palate tissue, and nasal mites.  Some cases of reverse sneezing are idiopathic, which means there is no identifiable cause.  A reverse sneeze results from irritation to the nasopharynx.  This irritation causes the loud inspiratory and expiratory snorts that prompt the owner to take the dog to the veterinarian.  The nasopharynx can be thought of as the part of the throat just above the soft palate.  The soft palate is a soft, fleshy tissue extension off the hard palate, or roof of the mouth.  If this problem continues, or appears to be severe, you should consult with your veterinarian.  However, most of the time there is nothing to worry about.